Amongst the several saints that have blessed our country, Kabir Das, the well known mystic poet, deserves a major credit for bringing about a revolution. he lives in between 1440 - 1518. He was known to be a weaver and later became famed for scorning religious affiliation, seen as a threat to both Muslim and Hindu elite.
His monist philosophies and ideas of loving devotion to God are expressed in metaphor and language from both the Hindu Vedanta and Bhakti streams and Muslim Sufi ideals. Kabir is also considered to be the father of the Sant Mat tradition. His Guru was Ramananda.
His greatest work is the Bijak, or Seedling, an idea of the fundamental one. This collection of poems demonstrates Kabir's own universal view of spirituality. His vocabulary is constantly full of ideas regarding Brahman and Hindu ideas of karma and reincarnation, and yet he also espouses ideas that are clearly Sufi as well as Hindu Bhakti understandings of God. His Hindi was a very vernacular, straightforward kind, much like his philosophies. He often advocated leaving aside the Qur'an and Vedas and to simply follow the Simple/Natural Way to oneness in God.
He believed in the Vedantic concepts of atman and yet spurned the orthodox Hindu societal caste system and worship of statues, thus showing clear belief in both bhakti and sufi ideas. The major part of Kabir's work as a Sikh Bhagat was collected by the first Sikh guru, Guru Nanak, and is published in the holy Sikh book "Guru Granth Sahib".
While many ideas reign as to who his living influences were, the only Guru of whom he ever spoke was Ramananda, a Vaishnav saint whom Kabir claimed to have taken initiation from in the form of the "Rama" mantra.
His poems resonate with praise for the true guru who reveals the divine through direct experience, and denounced more usual ways of attempting god-union such as chanting, austerities etc. His verses, which being illiterate he never expressed in writing, often began with some strongly worded insult to get the attention of passers-by. Kabir has enjoyed a revival of popularity over the past half century as arguably the most acceptable and understandable of the medieval Indian 'sants', with an especial influence over modern spiritual traditions such as that of Rhadasoami. Prem Rawat ('Maharaji') also refers frequently to Kabir's songs and poems as the embodiment of deep wisdom.
It is a fruitless endeavor, indeed one that Kabir himself disliked, to classify him as Hindu or Muslim, Sufi or Bhakta. The legends surrounding his lifetime attest to his strong aversion to communalism.
In fact, Kabir always insisted on the concept of Koi bole Ram Ram Koi Khudai..., which means that someone may chant the Hindu name of God and someone may chant the Muslim name of God, but God is the one who made the whole world.
His birth and death are surrounded by legends. He grew up in a Muslim weaver family, but some say he was really son of a Brahmin widow who was adopted by a childless couple. When he died, his Hindu and Muslim followers started fighting about the last rites. The legend is that when they lifted the cloth covering his body, they found flowers instead. The Muslim followers buried their half and the Hindu cremated their half. In Maghar, his tomb and samadhi still stand side by side. Another legend surrounding Kabir is that shortly before death he bathed in both Ganga and Karmnasha to wash away both his good deeds and his sins.
Chanakya was the first political thinker, this world have seen. His written books are still took as reference on various political situations.
Chanakya, also known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta, was a professor (acharya) of political science at the Takshasila University and the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. He live in between 350BC - 275 BC. He is regarded as one of the earliest known political thinkers, economists and king-makers. In Jawaharlal Nehru's Discovery of India, Chanakya has been called the Indian Machiavelli.
Chanakya is perhaps lesser known in world history compared to later political philosophers like Sun-Tzu and Machiavelli, but is definitely considered as the first genuine political theorist in Indian history. It is said that his foresight and wide knowledge coupled with politics of expediency helped found the mighty Mauryan Empire in India.
Chanakya was born in Magadha (ruled by the Nandas) as the son of acharya Chanak. At an early age, he began study of the Vedas, then considered the toughest scriptures to study and memorise. He was a dilligent student and loved to study political science especially the role of king and the ways of effective administration. After his father was accused as a traitor and killed in prison, Chanakya left Magadha vowing never to come back. He later came back to ask Nandas for help against the Greek invasion but was humiliated and sent back. He then vowed to cause the downfall of Magadha empire. He was responsible not only for helping Chandragupta Maurya usurp the throne , but also for uniting the Indian states for fighting against the attack by Alexander the Great around 327 BC.
Chanakya enjoyed the best education at the time, in 'Takshasila' (also known in its corrupted form as Taxila).Takshasila had established itself as a place of learning and it was there that Panini had written the Sanskrit Grammar. The new states in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh by uttarapatha along the base of the Himalayas maintained contact with Takshasila and at the eastern end of the uttarapatha was the kingdom of Magadha with its capital city, Pataliputra. Chanakya's life was connected to these two cities, Pataliputra and Takshasila.
The University taught subjects using the best of practical knowledge acquired by the teachers. The age of entering the University was sixteen. The branches of studies most sought after in around India ranged from law, medicine, warfare and other indigenous forms of learning. Chanakya eventually became a professor of political science at the University. Two of his more famous students were Bhadrabhatt and Purushdutt.
Political turmoil in Western India at that time caused by greek invasion forced Chanakya to leave the University environment for the city of 'Patliputra' (presently known as Patna, in the state of Bihar, India), which was ruled by the Nanda king Dhanananda. Although Chanakya initially prospered in his relations with the ruler, being a blunt person he was soon disliked by the Dhanananda. This ended with Chanakya being removed from an official position he enjoyed.
Folklore has it that on his way out of the city after his removal, Chanakya was hurt by a thorny bush. He then bought a pot of milk and poured on the bush so that ants could come and destroy the bush. It is said that at this moment he was observed by a young Chandragupta Maurya, the future Emperor and creator of the Mauryan empire. Chanakya took a promising young boy often from the streets and brought him up to become one of the greatest emperors of India.
Chanakya was the kingmaker who actually planned the unification of India for the first time under Chandragupta. Chanakya is also supposed to have induced Amatya Rakshasa from the enemy camp to serve as Chandragupta's Prime minister.
The folklore in India differs in some aspects from the established mainstream history. He is often referred as the most crooked of diplomats (Kautilya in Sanskrit means "one who is very cunning"). It is said that Chanakya made Chandragupta join Alexander and become one of his Lieutenants. This trust was fostered by various means, including murders and misinformation. Soon he engineered a propaganda war in Alexander's secondary army made up of mostly paid mercenaries that had come under Chandragupta's command or influence. The propaganda was designed to break the main army's strength by creating confusion. It is said that Alexander was well prepared for a war but could not instill confidence in his army. At the most opportune moment Chankaya made Chandragupta revolt. Chandragupta snapped logistics and communication links that were exposed systematically throughout to bribes and promises to ambitious warlords. Ensuing confusions were engineered by misinformation. Alexander was thus forced to try to retreat. However, he was advised to retreat by an unfamiliar and dangerous route. Confused and shaken, for some reason Alexander followed the suggestion and ventured through arid desert-like terrain, where most of his army reeled under heat, thirst, hunger, and disease. The returning army, already weakened by the climate, was attacked and brutally plundered.
With Alexander out, the images of Chandragupta and Chanakya were those of superheroes and helped make small kings submit easily. With each victory, their power increased, and soon the supposedly impossible was accomplished.
According to a legend, while Chanakya served as the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, he started adding small amounts of poison in Chandragupta's food so that he would get used to it. The aim of this was to prevent the Emperor from being poisoned by enemies. One day the queen, Durdha, shared the food with the Emperor while she was pregnant. Since she was not used to eating poisoned food, she died. Chanakya decided that the baby should not die; hence he cut open the belly of the queen and took out the baby. A drop (bindu) of poison had passed to the baby's head, and hence Chanakya named him Bindusara.
When Bindusara became a youth, Chandragupta gave up the throne and followed the Jain saint Bhadrabahu to Karnataka and settled in a place known as Sravana Belagola. He lived as an ascetic for some years and died of starvation according to Jain tradition.
Chanakya meanwhile stayed as the Prime Minister of Bindusara. Bindusara also had a minister named Subandhu who did not like Chanakya. One day he told Bindusara that Chanakya was responsible for the murder of his mother. Bindusara asked the nurses who confirmed this story and he became very angry with Chanakya.
It is said that Chanakya, on hearing that the Emperor was angry with him, thought that anyway he was at the end of his life. He donated all his wealth to the poor, widows and orphans and sat on a dung heap, prepared to die by total abstinence from food and drink. Bindusara meanwhile heard the full story of his birth from the nurses and rushed to beg forgiveness of Chanakya. But Chanakya would not relent. Bindusara went back and vent his fury on Subandhu, who asked for time to beg for forgiveness from Chanakya.
Subandhu, who still hated Chanakya, wanted to make sure that Chanakya did not return to the city. So he arranged for a ceremony of respect, but unnoticed by anyone, slipped a smoldering charcoal ember inside the dung heap. Aided by the wind, the dung heap was on fire and the man behind the Mauryan Empire and the author of Arthashastra was burned to death.
Three books are attributed to Chanakya:
Arthashastra,
Nitishastra and
Chanakya Niti.
Arthashastra (literally 'the Science of Material Gain' in Sanskrit) is a classic of statecraft. Many of his nitis or policies have been compiled under the book Chanakya Niti.
Nose stud or ring is worn by both married and unmarried Indian women. The significance of the nose stud varies from region to region. As in several other rituals, there is no written code in Hinduism regarding the wearing of nose ring or nose piercing. In certain Hindu sects, a nose ring is referred as ‘Nath’ is worn during marriage and is a symbol of married woman. There are several communities in Hindu religion which does not perform nose piercing.
Several ancient classical texts are silent on the nose stud and therefore there are several theories regarding the use of nose stud in Hindu religion. Some observe that nose stud was not used during ancient times and it was introduced by invaders during the 11th century.
Another school of thought quotes ancient Ayurvedic text Sushruta Samhita (Chikitsa Sthana Chapter 19) to suggest that nose piercing was prevalent from ancient period. It is believed that the piercing of the nose near a particular node on the nostril lessens the pain during monthly menstrual cycle. Some also believe that it protects women from nasal infection. (If the piercing is related to health, then why don’t men too do it?)
Nose stud is widely worn in South India, especially in Tamil Nadu and in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, by both married and unmarried young women. It is known as ‘mookkutthi.’ In some instances, women wear nose stud on both the wings of their nose. Nose studs of Konkani brides from Goa are famous especially for its design, which are adorned with small fish or bird. Nose ring is not the preferred choice in South India.
Nose ring and nose stud are a preferred choice in North India and in several communities it is a must during marriage ceremonies. A nose ring or pin or stud can be made of gold, pearl and diamond. In some Hindu communities, the nose stud is not removed and it is a symbol of married women like sindoor and mangal sutra and is an essential part of Shodash Shringar or Solah sringar - the sixteen beautification processes of a bride.
There is no consistency in the wearing of nose stud or ring. In some region, it is worn on the left wing of the nose and in some region it is on the right. For example, a bride from Maharashtra wears it on left. In Gujarat, it is worn on the right. The size and style of nose stud also varies from region to region. The big nose ring is only worn on the marriage day. Some communities opt for small nose rings. Nose stud or ring is used in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab.
There is also a kind of septum (the dividing part between two cavities) piercing, which is equally popular as nose piercing, in Nepal and in northern parts of India including Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh. This nose ring is known as ‘Bulak.’ Such piercing is also practiced by in eastern India by some communities.
Nowadays, some Hindu women see nose stud as part of modern day trendy fashion jewelry. Some are also fighting against wearing of nose rings which act as an impediment in their daily activities.
Quadratic equations were used by Sridharacharya in the 11th century.
Sridharacharya is referred ot by Bhaskara II as a distinguished mathematician and is quoted by the latter in a number of places. He work under the title Patiganita and the other a smaller tract called Trisatika, both of which have been edited, and of which a number of manuscripts also exist. His algebra is no longer extant, but is known from Bhaskara's references. The same arithmetical topics as are discussed by Brahmagupta, Mahavira and Bhaskara II are treated in the Trisatika. For multiplication, he uses a new term Pratyutpanna (re-produced) and discusses the kapata-sandhi (door-junction, Gelosia) method which became very popular among later Hindu writers and was transmitted to the West through Arab works.
We know from Bhaskara that Sridharacharya was the discoverer of a method of solving quadratic equations in which the two sides require to be multiplied by four times the cofficient of x**2. An application of this method is also preserved in his arithmetic. Sridhara's contemporary Sripati is well known for his arithmetic Ganita-tilaka commented upon by Simhatilaka Suri in the thirteenth Century.
The largest numbers the Greeks and the Romans used were 106 where as Hindus used numbers as big as 10**53(10 to the power of 53) with specific names as early as 5000 BCE during the Vedic period. Even today, the largest used number is Tera 10**12(10 to the power of12).
Mohini Attam is the feminine dance form of Kerala, a state in the south western most part of India. It is danced by women and is known for its very sensual themes. Mohini Attam has an extremely, slow seductive quality. It has only been in recent decades that Mohini Attam has risen in popularity and acceptability
There is a typical costume for Mohini Attam. It is generally simple and white, or off-white. Usually there is a gold brocade, possibly with a border of red. One of the most characteristic signs of the Mohini Attam dancer is the bun of hair worn off-centre. This is very much a characteristic of women from Kerala.
The myth of Mohini is central to the performance. According to the story, Brahma tells the other Gods how they can obtain amrit (celestial ambrosia); amrit bestows immortality and great power. He informs them that they can do so by churned up the ocean of milk. Unfortunately, the job is so great that the gods are forced to seek the assistance of the demons. The demons agree to help, but are secretly plotting to keep it all for themselves.
So the fateful day finally comes. The amrit has been rendered, but only after many difficulties. Vishnu finds out about the plot to steal the amrit. He knows that it would be disastrous for the demons to obtain such powers.
Vishnu decides to thwart the demons in their plans to steal the amrit. He takes the form of a beautiful celestial nymph (apsara), and by way of her amorous charms distracts them from their plans. By means of this distraction the amrit is given to the gods, and the world is saved from the demons.
Mohini Attam is just beginning to be accepted outside of Kerala. One is starting to find it used at toward the end of Bharat Natyam perfomances. Therefore, one is starting to find instruments that are normally associated with Bharat Natyam (e.g., mridangam, vina, venu). However more traditional forms use instruments such as shuddha madalam and edakka (uddaku).
Although there is a general tendency to call Mohini Attam classical, this is probably not justifiable. It is more appropriate to call Mohini Attam a traditional dance form.; We have three benchmarks to, help us decide whether something is classical; age, the ability to cross ethnic boundaries, and upper class associations. Mohini Attam clearly fails two of these benchmarks. It is very old, so this is not an issue. However, it has a very limited acceptance in the non-Malayali (non Keralite) communities. Furthermore, until recently it was generally looked down upon in "polite" society, so it was not something that had upper class connotations.
Manipuri is one of the most beautiful dance styles of India. Nurtured in the mountainous region of the northeast, it takes its name from the name of the area, Manipur, which is now a state. Manipur literally means a jewel of a land, and the state is set like a gem in the verdant hills. The legend goes that the gods drained a lake in the beautiful countryside in order to find a place to dance. No wonder then, that dance is an inherent part of the rituals of daily life, such as weddings and homage to ancestors.
The Lai Haroba, a ritualistic dance depicting the Creation, is considered the precursor of Manipuri as seen today. The Lai Haroba is still an important living tradition, while Manipuri has expanded and gained popularity as a performing art in group and solo presentations.
Among the important constituents of the Manipuri repertoire are the Sankirtana and the Raas Leela, based on the devotional theme of Krishna and Radha. The Raas Leela depicts the cosmic dance of Krishna and the cowherd maidens. The beautiful embroidered skirts of the dancers, long and flared from the waist, and the transluscent veils, along with Krishna's costume with the tall peacock feather crown, add to the radiant appearance of this dance, as the performers sway and twirl to an ascending tempo.
Another vibrant feature of Manipuri is the Pung Cholam or Drum dance, in which dancers play on the drum known as Pung while dancing with thrilling leaps and turns to a fast rhythm.
Kuchipudi, one of the art forms of the South had its origin in Andhra Pradesh. It presents scenes from Hindu Epics and mythological tales through dance-dramas combining music, dance and acting.
The lyrics used in Kuchipudi are usually in Telugu, though Sanskrit verses are also not uncommon. While Kuchipudi, like Bharata Natyam comprises pure dance, mime and histrionics, it is the use of speech as well that distinguishes its presentation as dance drama.
Kuchipudi dance-dramas, each present a particular episode or a series of episodes. A solo recital, on the other hand, typically consists of such items as the 'Sabdam', 'Bhama kalapam' which is the main item, 'Padams' and 'Tarangams'. In 'Bhama kalapam', the dancer has enormous scope for the dramatisation of characters. The main character is Satyabhama, a beautiful but arrogant queen who goes through the process of discovering the path of true love and devotion. In the 'Tarangam', the dancer frequently perform a balancing feat, her feet poised on the edge of a brass plate as she moves around.
Kuchipudi, a representation of a fine combination of Natya, Nritta and Nritya was earlier never a solo affair and required a number of actors. It was presented in the open air on an improvised stage by men and boys who were given a vigorous training in abhinaya, music, dancing and singing. Earlier the female roles were played by boys and young men of comely appearance. The Sutradhar or the director of the stage played the key role. He was the conductor, dancer, singer, musician, comedian, all rolled into one.
The play began with the orchestral music which included Mridanga, Madala and a pair of cymbals, followed by an invocation to a deity and appearance of Ganesha, the elephant headed god to bless the performance. Then came the dancers offering worship to the Flagstaff or Flag of Indra. The Sutradhara then announced the theme of the play, introduced the characters in his sing-song voice and appealed the audience to witness the show with attention. This marked the end of the prelude and the beginning of the play proper.
Each character entered the stage dancing and singing the merits of the character he or she was impersonating, which is known as 'Daruvus'. The play progressed at a leisurely pace and relaxed tempo punctuated with dances both abstract and expressional. It contained some very complicated items of original footwork such as tracing out an outline of a lion or an elephant with the feet on the floor or dancing with the feet on the edges of a circular brass tray or with a water pot delicately and precariously balanced on the head.
Today Kuchipudi is considerably a different style of dance form than it originally used to be. In most of the cases it is now a solo performance done by female dancers. The Sutradhara has become a phenomenon of the past and the Vachika abhinaya, that is, expressional numbers are sung by the danseuses herself instead by the vocalists in the background on the stage as was the traditional practice. The element of devotion to gods has also been done away with and it has become purely a secular affair with predominance of 'sringar' or erotic flavour. Besides the drama component has also been totally reduced. The main expressional number is from Jaideva's Ashtapadi, the Ramayana, the Puranas, Tirtha Narayana's Krishna Lila Tarangini or Tyagaraja's compositions, but now the dancer combines into herself the roles of the singer who sings the 'daruvu', the actor who speaks the lines and the dancer who mimes and dances to interpret the text. Elements not indigenous to the dance drama such as sculpture like stances and freezes based on perfect iconographic forms motifs and shapes have also been incorporated into Kuchipudi dance recitals to make it more competitive with other dance forms.
Kathakali originated from a precursor dance-drama form called Ramanattam and owes it share of techniques also to Krishnanattam. The word "attam" means enactment. In short, these two forerunning forms to Kathakali dealt with presentation of the stories of Hindu mythology heroes Rama and Krishna -- and it's still largely the case. It was Kottarakara Thampuran (1625-1685) (ruler of the south Kerala province of Kottarakara) who composed several plays on the Ramayana, which led to the evolution of Kathakali. Today, Ramanattam is extinct, but its storyplays continue to be a part of Kathakali.
Kathakali also shares a lot of similarities with Krishnanattam, Koodiyattam (a classical Sanskrit drama existing in Kerala) and Ashtapadiyattam (an adaptation of 12th-century musical called Gitagovindam). It also incorporates several other elements from traditional and ritualistic art forms like Mudiyettu, Thiyyattu, Theyyam and Padayani besides a minor share of folk arts like Porattunatakam. All along, the martial art of Kalarippayattu has influenced the body language of Kathakali. The use of Malayalam, the local language (albeit as a mix of Sanskrit and Malayalam, called Manipravalam), has also helped the literature of Kathakali sound more transparent for the average audience. The characters with painted faces and elaborate costumes besides advanced choreography (primarily developed Kaplingad Narayanan Namboodiri - 1739-1789) to re-enact stories -- largely from the Hindu epics. Kathakali has traditionally been performed in temples and palaces, but over the past century it also finds venues in post-harvest paddy fields and, since the last few decades, in proscenium stages of public halls/auditoria and even in pagentry shows (in bits) of late.
Overall, what initially began as a rustic, uncivilised form gradually gained exquisite looks, sophisticated movements and complementary audio support to graduate itself as one of the world's most advanced dance-dramas today.
